Pyroclastic Flow Like Pompei Happen Again

Eruption of a stratovolcano in southern Italy during the Roman Empire

Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD
The Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum (c. 1821) by John Martin
Volcano	Mount Vesuvius
Date	August 24–25 (Traditional) or c.  October or November (modern hypothesis), 79 Ad
Blazon	Plinian, Peléan
Location	Campania, Italia 40°49′N xiv°26′E  /  twoscore.817°North fourteen.433°Due east  / 40.817; fourteen.433 Coordinates: twoscore°49′N xiv°26′E  /  xl.817°N fourteen.433°Due east  / twoscore.817; 14.433
VEI	five
Impact	Buried the Roman settlements of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis and Stabiae.
Deaths	one,500–3,500, possibly up to sixteen,000[1] [note one]

Of the many eruptions of Mountain Vesuvius, a major stratovolcano in southern Italian republic, the most famous is its eruption in 79 Advertisement, which was one of the deadliest in European history.^[two] Information technology has been called one of the virtually well-known volcanic eruptions in history.^{[three] [4]}

In the autumn of 79 Ad, Mount Vesuvius violently spewed along a deadly cloud of super-heated tephra and gases to a pinnacle of 33 km (21 mi), ejecting molten rock, pulverized pumice and hot ash at 1.five 1000000 tons per 2nd, ultimately releasing 100,000 times the thermal energy of the diminutive bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.^[5] The event gives its name to the Vesuvian type of volcanic eruption, characterised by eruption columns of hot gases and ash exploding into the stratosphere, although the event besides included pyroclastic flows associated with Pelean eruptions.

At the time, the region was a part of the Roman Empire, and several Roman cities were obliterated and buried underneath massive pyroclastic surges and ashfall deposits, the all-time known existence Pompeii and Herculaneum.^{[2] [v]} Later archaeological excavations revealed much about the lives of the inhabitants, the area became a major tourist attraction, and is at present a UNESCO World Heritage Site and part of Vesuvius National Park.

The full population of both cities was over 20,000.^{[6] [7]} The remains of over ane,500 people have been institute at Pompeii and Herculaneum so far, although the full decease toll from the eruption remains unknown.

Precursors and foreshocks [edit]

The starting time major earthquake in the region since 217 BC^[eight] occurred on February 5, 62 Ad, causing widespread devastation effectually the Bay of Naples and specially to Pompeii.^[ix] Some of the damage had still not been repaired when the volcano erupted in 79 AD.^[10]

Another smaller earthquake took identify in 64 Advertizement; it was recorded past Suetonius in his biography of Nero,^[eleven] and by Tacitus in Annales because it took place while Nero was in Naples performing for the starting time time in a public theatre.^[12] Suetonius recorded that the emperor connected singing through the earthquake until he had finished his song, while Tacitus wrote that the theatre complanate before long after being evacuated.

Small earthquakes were felt for four days before the 79 AD eruption, simply the warnings were not recognized. The inhabitants of the area surrounding Mount Vesuvius had been accepted to minor earth tremors in the region; the author Pliny the Younger wrote that they "were not specially alarming because they are frequent in Campania".

Nature of the eruption [edit]

Reconstructions of the eruption and its effects vary considerably in the details only accept the same overall features. The eruption lasted for two days. The morning of the offset day was perceived as normal by the simply bystander to get out a surviving document, Pliny the Younger, who at that point was staying at Misenum, on the other side of the Bay of Naples about 29 kilometres (18 mi) from the volcano, which may take prevented him from noticing the early signs of the eruption. During the next two days, he did non have any opportunity to talk to people who had witnessed the eruption from Pompeii or Herculaneum (indeed he never mentions Pompeii in his letter), so he would not have noticed early, smaller fissures and releases of ash and fume on the mountain, if such had occurred earlier in the morning.

Around one:00 p.m., Mount Vesuvius violently erupted, spewing up a high-altitude cavalcade from which ash and pumice began to autumn, blanketing the surface area. Rescues and escapes occurred during this time. At some time in the night or early the next day, pyroclastic flows in the shut vicinity of the volcano began. Lights seen on the mountain were interpreted equally fires. People equally far away as Misenum fled for their lives. The flows were rapid-moving, dense, and very hot, wholly or partly knocking down all structures in their path, incinerating or suffocating the remaining population and altering the landscape, including the coastline. These were accompanied by additional light tremors and a mild tsunami in the Bay of Naples. Past evening of the second day, the eruption was over, leaving only brume in the atmosphere through which the sun shone weakly.

Pliny the Younger wrote an account of the eruption:

Broad sheets of flame were lighting up many parts of Vesuvius; their light and brightness were the more than vivid for the darkness of the dark... it was daylight at present elsewhere in the earth, but there the darkness was darker and thicker than any night.^[13]

Stratigraphic studies [edit]

Pompeii and Herculaneum, as well as other cities afflicted by the eruption of Mountain Vesuvius. The blackness deject represents the full general distribution of ash, pumice and cinders. Modern coast lines are shown; Pliny the Younger was at Misenum.

Sigurðsson, Cashdollar, and Sparks undertook a detailed stratigraphic study of the layers of ash, based on excavations and surveys, which was published in 1982. Their conclusion was that the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD unfolded in two phases, Vesuvian and Pelean, which alternated vi times.^[14]

Starting time, the Plinian eruption, which consisted of a column of volcanic droppings and hot gases ejected between xv km (ix mi) and thirty km (nineteen mi) high into the stratosphere, lasted xviii to 20 hours and produced a fall of pumice and ash southward of the volcano that accumulated upwardly to depths of 2.8 m (ix ft) at Pompeii.

Then, in the Pelean eruption phase, pyroclastic surges of molten rock and hot gases flowed over the footing, reaching as far every bit Misenum, which were concentrated to the westward and northwest. 2 pyroclastic surges engulfed Pompeii with a 1.8-metre-deep (6 ft) layer, burning and asphyxiating any living beings who had remained behind. Herculaneum and Oplontis received the brunt of the surges and were buried in fine pyroclastic deposits, pulverized pumice and lava fragments upwards to xx thousand (70 ft) deep. Surges 4 and 5 are believed past the authors to have destroyed and cached Pompeii.^[fifteen] Surges are identified in the deposits by dune and cross-bedding formations, which are non produced by fallout.

The eruption is viewed as primarily phreatomagmatic, where the chief free energy supporting the blast column came from escaping steam created from seawater seeping over time into the deep-seated faults of the region, coming into contact with hot magma.

Timing of explosions [edit]

In an article published in 2002, Sigurðsson and Casey concluded that an early explosion produced a column of ash and pumice which rained on Pompeii to the southeast but not on Herculaneum, which was upwind.^[sixteen] Subsequently, the deject collapsed as the gases densified and lost their adequacy to support their solid contents.

The authors suggest that the first ash falls are to be interpreted equally early-morning, low-volume explosions not seen from Misenum, causing Rectina to send her messenger on a ride of several hours effectually the Bay of Naples, then passable, providing an answer to the paradox of how the messenger might miraculously announced at Pliny's villa so shortly after a afar eruption that would take prevented him.

Magnetic studies [edit]

Within the crater of Vesuvius

A 2006 report by Zanella, Gurioli, Pareschi, and Lanza used the magnetic characteristics of over 200 samples of lithic, roof-tile, and plaster fragments collected from pyroclastic deposits in and around Pompeii to guess the equilibrium temperatures of the deposits.^[17] The deposits were placed by pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) resulting from the collapses of the Plinian column. The authors contend that fragments over ii–five cm (0.8–2 in) were non in the electric current long enough to acquire its temperature, which would accept been much higher, and therefore they distinguish between the depositional temperatures, which they estimated, and the emplacement temperatures, which in some cases based on the cooling characteristics of some types and fragment sizes of rocks they believed they also could judge. Terminal figures are considered to exist those of the rocks in the electric current just earlier deposition.^[eighteen]

All crystal rock contains some fe or atomic number 26 compounds, rendering it ferromagnetic, every bit do Roman roof tiles and plaster. These materials may acquire a rest field from a number of sources. When individual molecules, which are magnetic dipoles, are held in alignment by being bound in a crystalline construction, the minor fields reinforce each other to form the rock'southward residual field.^[nineteen] Heating the textile adds internal energy to it. At the Curie temperature, the vibration of the molecules is sufficient to disrupt the alignment; the cloth loses its residue magnetism and assumes whatever magnetic field might be applied to it simply for the duration of the application. The authors term this phenomenon unblocking. Residual magnetism is considered to "block out" non-residual fields.

A rock is a mixture of minerals, each with its own Curie temperature; the authors therefore looked for a spectrum of temperatures rather than a single temperature. In the ideal sample, the PDC did not heighten the temperature of the fragment beyond the highest blocking temperature. Some constituent cloth retained the magnetism imposed by the Globe'due south field when the detail was formed. The temperature was raised above the lowest blocking temperature and therefore some minerals on recooling caused the magnetism of the Earth as information technology was in 79 AD. The overall field of the sample was the vector sum of the fields of the high-blocking textile and the depression-blocking material.

This type of sample made possible interpretation of the low unblocking temperature. Using special equipment that measured field direction and strength at various temperatures, the experimenters raised the temperature of the sample in increments of 40 °C (70 °F) from 100 °C (210 °F) until it reached the depression unblocking temperature.^[20] Deprived of ane of its components, the overall field changed direction. A plot of direction at each increase identified the increment at which the sample'southward resultant magnetism had formed.^[21] That was considered to be the equilibrium temperature of the eolith. Considering the information for all the deposits of the surge arrived at a surge deposit gauge. The authors discovered that the urban center of Pompeii was a relatively absurd spot inside a much hotter field, which they attributed to interaction of the surge with the "textile" of the city.^[22]

The investigators reconstruct the sequence of volcanic events every bit follows:

• On the first twenty-four hours of the eruption, a fall of white pumice containing clastic fragments of up to 3 centimetres (1 in) fell for several hours.^[23] Information technology heated the roof tiles to 120–140 °C (250–280 °F).^[24] This menses would take been the final opportunity to escape. Afterward, a second column deposited a gray pumice with clastics up to 10 cm (4 in), temperature unsampled, but presumed to exist higher, for 18 hours. These two falls were the Plinian stage. The collapse of the edges of these clouds generated the first dilute PDCs, which must have been devastating to Herculaneum, but did not enter Pompeii.
• Early on in the morning of the 2nd day, the grey cloud began to collapse to a greater degree. Two major surges struck and destroyed Pompeii. Herculaneum and all its population no longer existed. The emplacement temperature range of the first surge was 180–220 °C (360–430 °F), minimum temperatures; of the 2nd, 220–260 °C (430–500 °F). The depositional temperature of the starting time was 140–300 °C (280–570 °F). Upstream and downstream of the flow information technology was 300–360 °C (570–680 °F).^[25]

The variable temperature of the first surge was due to interaction with the buildings. Whatsoever population remaining in structural refuges could not take escaped, as the city was surrounded by gases of incinerating temperatures. The lowest temperatures were in rooms under collapsed roofs. These were every bit depression as 100 °C (212 °F), the boiling indicate of water.^[26] The authors suggest that elements of the bottom of the flow were decoupled from the main catamenia by topographic irregularities and were made cooler by the introduction of ambient turbulent air. In the second surge the irregularities were gone and the city was as hot every bit the surrounding environment.

During the concluding surge, which was very dilute, an boosted ane metre (3.3 ft) of deposits fell over the region.^[27]

The Two Plinys [edit]

Pompeii, with Vesuvius towering in the background

The only surviving bystander account of the event consists of ii letters by Pliny the Younger, who was 17 at the fourth dimension of the eruption,^[28] to the historian Tacitus and written some 25 years after the consequence.^{[29] [30]} Observing the starting time volcanic activity from Misenum across the Bay of Naples from the volcano, approximately 29 kilometres (xviii mi) away, Pliny the Elder (Pliny the Younger's uncle) launched a rescue fleet and went himself to the rescue of a personal friend. His nephew declined to join the party. One of the nephew's messages relates what he could discover from witnesses of his uncle's experiences.^[31] In a second letter, the younger Pliny details his own observations after the departure of his uncle.^[32]

Pliny the Younger [edit]

Pliny the Younger saw an extraordinarily dense deject rising quickly above the mountain:^[31]

the appearance of which I cannot give yous a more exact clarification of than past likening information technology to that of a pino-tree, for information technology shot upwards to a cracking height in the form of a very tall trunk, which spread itself out at the top into a sort of branches. [...] information technology appeared sometimes bright and sometimes dark and spotted, according equally it was either more than or less impregnated with globe and cinders.

These events and a request by messenger for an evacuation by sea prompted the elderberry Pliny to order rescue operations in which he sailed abroad to participate. His nephew attempted to resume a normal life, continuing to study, and bathing, but that night a tremor woke him and his mother, prompting them to abandon the house for the courtyard. At another tremor nearly dawn the population abandoned the village. Later still a third "the body of water seemed to curl back upon itself, and to be driven from its banks", which is prove for a tsunami. There is, however, no prove of extensive impairment from wave action.

The early low-cal was obscured by a blackness cloud through which shone flashes, which Pliny likens to sheet lightning, simply more extensive. The deject obscured Point Misenum nearly at paw and the island of Capraia (Capri) beyond the bay. Fearing for their lives, the population began to phone call to each other and movement back from the declension forth the road. Pliny's mother requested him to abandon her and salvage his own life, as she was likewise corpulent and aged to go further, but seizing her manus, he led her abroad every bit all-time he could. A rain of ash fell. Pliny establish it necessary to milkshake off the ash periodically to avoid existence cached. Later that same day the ash stopped falling and the sunday shone weakly through the cloud, encouraging Pliny and his mother to return to their domicile and expect for news of Pliny the Elderberry. The letter compares the ash to a coating of snow. Evidently the convulsion and tsunami harm at that location were not severe enough to foreclose connected utilise of the domicile.

Pliny the Elder [edit]

Pliny'southward uncle, Pliny the Elderberry, was in command of the Roman armada at Misenum, and had meanwhile decided to investigate the phenomenon at close hand in a light vessel. As the send was preparing to leave the area, a messenger came from his friend Rectina (wife of Bassus^[33]) living on the coast nearly the foot of the volcano, explaining that her party could but get abroad by bounding main and asking for rescue.^[34] Pliny ordered the immediate launching of the fleet galleys to the evacuation of the declension. He continued in his lite ship to the rescue of Rectina'south party.^[34]

He set off beyond the bay only in the shallows on the other side encountered thick showers of hot cinders, lumps of pumice, and pieces of rock. Advised past the helmsman to turn back he stated "Fortune favors the brave" and ordered him to continue on to Stabiae (near 4.five km or 2.8 mi from Pompeii), where Pomponianus was.^[34] Pomponianus had already loaded a transport with possessions and was preparing to get out, only the aforementioned onshore air current that brought Pliny's ship to the location had prevented anyone from leaving.^[34]

Pliny and his party saw flames coming from several parts of the mountain, which Pliny and his friends attributed to called-for villages. After staying overnight, the political party was driven from the building by an accumulation of textile which threatened to block all egress.^[34] They woke Pliny, who had been napping and snoring loudly. They elected to take to the fields with pillows tied to their heads to protect them from rockfall. They approached the beach once again, only the current of air had not changed. Pliny saturday down on a sail that had been spread for him and could not ascension, fifty-fifty with assistance. His friends and so departed, escaping ultimately by land.^[35] Very likely, he had collapsed and died, the almost popular explanation for why his friends abased him, although Suetonius offers an alternative story of his ordering a slave to kill him to avoid the pain of incineration. How the slave would take escaped to tell the tale remains a mystery. There is no mention of such an event in his nephew'southward letters.

In the starting time letter to Tacitus his nephew suggested that his death was due to the reaction of his weak lungs to a cloud of poisonous, sulphurous gas that wafted over the grouping.^[34] However, Stabiae was xvi km (ix.nine mi) from the vent (roughly where the modern town of Castellammare di Stabia is situated) and his companions were plain unaffected by the fumes, and and so information technology is more probable that the corpulent Pliny died from some other cause, such equally a stroke or centre attack.^[36] An asthmatic attack is also not out of the question. His body was found with no apparent injuries on the next 24-hour interval, later dispersal of the plume.

Casualties from the eruption [edit]

The casts of some victims in the so-called "Garden of the Fugitives", Pompeii.

Apart from Pliny the Elderberry, the only other notable casualties of the eruption to exist known by name were the Herodian Edomite princess Drusilla and her son Agrippa, who was born in her spousal relationship with the procurator Antonius Felix.^[37] Information technology is also said that the poet Caesius Bassus died in the eruption.^[38]

By 2003, approximately 1,044 casts made from impressions of bodies in the ash deposits had been recovered in and around Pompeii, with the scattered bones of another 100.^[39] The remains of about 332 bodies have been found at Herculaneum (300 in arched vaults discovered in 1980).^[40] The total number of fatalities remains unknown.

The skeleton chosen the "Ring Lady" unearthed in Herculaneum

30-eight percent of the 1,044 were institute in the ash fall deposits, the majority within buildings.^[39] This differs from mod experience over the terminal 400 years when only around 4% of victims have been killed by ash falls during explosive eruptions. This cohort was possibly sheltering in buildings when they were overcome. The remaining 62% of bodies found at Pompeii lay in the pyroclastic surge deposits which probably killed them. It was initially believed that due to the state of the bodies found at Pompeii and the outline of clothes on the bodies it was unlikely that loftier temperatures were a significant cause. Later studies indicated that during the fourth pyroclastic surge (the outset surge to reach Pompeii) temperatures reached 300 °C (572 °F) which was enough to kill people in a fraction of a 2nd.^[41] The contorted postures of bodies as if frozen in suspended activeness were not the effects of long agony, but of the cadaveric spasm, a consequence of heat shock on corpses.^[42] The heat was and then intense that organs and blood were vaporised, and at least 1 victim'due south encephalon was vitrified by the temperature.^[43]

Herculaneum, which was much closer to the crater, was saved from tephra falls by the wind direction but was buried under 23 metres (75 ft) of fabric deposited by pyroclastic surges. Information technology is probable that most, or all, of the known victims in this boondocks were killed by the surges, particularly given prove of high temperatures plant on the skeletons of the victims institute in the arched vaults on the seashore and the beingness of carbonised forest in many of the buildings. These people were full-bodied in the vaults at a density as loftier as iii per square metre and were all defenseless by the showtime surge, dying of thermal shock and partly carbonised by later on and hotter surges. The vaults were almost likely boathouses, equally the crossbeams overhead were probably for the suspension of boats used for the earlier escape of some of the population. As just 85 metres (279 ft) of the coast has been excavated, more casualties may exist waiting to be excavated.

Date of the eruption [edit]

Vesuvius and its subversive eruption are mentioned in outset-century Roman sources, but non the twenty-four hours of the eruption. For instance, Josephus in his Antiquities of the Jews mentions that the eruption occurred "in the days of Titus Caesar."^[44] Suetonius, a second-century historian, in his Life of Titus simply says that, "There were some dreadful disasters during his reign, such equally the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Campania."^[45]

Writing well over a century afterwards the actual event, Roman historian Cassius Dio (as translated in the Loeb Classical Library 1925 edition) wrote that, "In Campania remarkable and frightful occurrences took identify; for a great burn suddenly flared up at the very end of the summer."^[46]

For the past five centuries, manufactures near the eruption of Vesuvius have typically said that the eruption began on Baronial 24 of 79 AD. This date came from a 1508 printed version of a letter between Pliny the Younger and the Roman historian Tacitus, written some 25 years after the result.^{[47] [48]} Pliny was a witness to the eruption and provides the only known eyewitness account. Over fourteen centuries of manuscript hand-copying up to the 1508 printing of his messages, the date given in Pliny's original letter of the alphabet may have been corrupted. Manuscript experts believe that the appointment originally given by Pliny was ane of August 24, October 30, November one, or November 23.^[49] This odd scattered set up of dates is due to the Romans' convention for describing calendar dates. The large majority of extant medieval manuscript copies – at that place are no surviving Roman copies – indicate a date corresponding to August 24, and from the discovery of the cities into the 21st century this was accepted by nearly scholars and by nearly all books written about Pompeii and Herculaneum for the general public.

Since at to the lowest degree the late 18th century, a minority amongst archaeologists and other scientists have suggested that the eruption began later Baronial 24, during the autumn, perhaps in October or November. In 1797 the researcher Carlo Rosini reported that excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum had uncovered traces of fruits and braziers indicative of the autumn, not the summer.

More than recently, in 1990 and 2001, archaeologists discovered more than remnants of autumnal fruits (such as the pomegranate), the remains of victims of the eruption in heavy article of clothing, and big earthenware storage vessels laden with wine (at the time of their burying by Vesuvius). The wine-related discovery may prove that the eruption was afterwards the year's grape harvest and wine making.^[50]

In 2007 a study of prevailing winds in Campania showed that the southeasterly debris pattern of the first-century eruption is quite consistent with an autumn event, and inconsistent with an August date. During June, July, and August, the prevailing winds flow to the west – an arc betwixt the southwest and northwest – virtually all the time.^[50] (Annotation that the Julian calendar was in place throughout the first century AD – that is, the months of the Roman calendar were aligned with the seasons.)

As Emperor Titus of the Flavian dynasty (reigning June 24, 79 to September 13, 81) garnered victories on the battlefield (including his capture of the Temple of Jerusalem) and other honors, his administration issued coins enumerating his ever-growing accolades. Given the express infinite on each money, his achievements were stamped on the coins using an arcane encoding. Ii of these coins, from early in Titus' reign, were found in a hoard recovered at Pompeii's House of the Golden Bracelet. Although the coins' minting dates are somewhat in dispute,^[50] a numismatic proficient at the British Museum, Richard Abdy, concluded that the latest money in the hoard was minted on or after June 24 (the kickoff date of Titus' reign) and earlier September 1 of 79 Advertizement. Abdy states that it is "remarkable that both coins will have taken only two months after minting to enter circulation and reach Pompeii before the disaster."^[51]

In Oct 2018, Italian archaeologists uncovered a charcoal inscription dated October 17 (of 79 AD as it was unlikely to have been a twelvemonth old)^[52] which sets the primeval possible engagement for the eruption.^{[53] [54]}

See too [edit]

• Boscotrecase
• Buildings at Pompeii, including
  • Villa Boscoreale
  • Villa Poppaea
• Pompeii (song), the 2013 song by Bastille inspired by the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius

Notes [edit]

1. ^ The number of confirmed deaths is currently 1,500, with that many bodies having been establish thus far.

References [edit]

1. ^ "3 – Vesuvius in 79 Advertisement Ranks Way Down the List of History's Deadliest Eruptions". History Collection. August seven, 2017. Retrieved November 22, 2020.
2. ^ ^{a b} Andrew Wallace-Hadrill (Oct fifteen, 2010). "Pompeii: Portents of Disaster". BBC History . Retrieved Feb 4, 2011.
3. ^ Martin, Stephanie C. (May 1, 2020). "By eruptions and future predictions: Analyzing aboriginal responses to Mount Vesuvius for utilize in modernistic run a risk direction". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 396: 106851. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2020.106851. ISSN 0377-0273.
4. ^ Sebastian Vogel, Domenico Esposito, Florian Seiler and Michael Märker, "Analysing the Rural Landscape around Pompeii before the Eruption of Somma-Vesuvius in AD 79", in: Landscape Archæology Conference (LAC 2012), eTopoi. Periodical for Aboriginal Studies, Special Volume 3 (2012), 377–382
5. ^ ^{a b} "Science: Human being of Pompeii". Time. October fifteen, 1956. Archived from the original on December 14, 2008. Retrieved Feb 4, 2011.
6. ^ Maiuri, Amedeo (April 1958). "Pompeii". Scientific American. 198 (4): lxx. Bibcode:1958SciAm.198d..68M. doi:x.1038/scientificamerican0458-68. JSTOR 24940972.
7. ^ Maiuri, Amedeo (1977). Herculaneum. Italy: Instituto Poligrafico Dello Stato, Libreria Dello Stato. p. 13.
8. ^ "Catalogo Parametrico dei Terrimoti Italiani" (PDF). Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica east Vulcanologia. 2004.
9. ^ Martini, Kirk (September 1998). "Chapter ii: Identifying Potential Damage Events". Patterns of Reconstruction at Pompeii. Pompeii Forum Project, Institute for Avant-garde Technology in the Humanities (IATH), University of Virginia.
10. ^ Jones, Rick (September 28, 2007). "Visiting Pompeii – AD 79 – Vesuvius explodes". Current Archeology. Archived from the original on March eight, 2012. Retrieved June 20, 2017.
11. ^ Suetonius, C. Tranquillus (1914) [121]. "20". The Life of Nero. The Lives of the Caesars. Loeb Classical Library, William P. Thayer.
12. ^ Tacitus, Publius Cornelius (1864–1877) [117]. "Book 15.22". The Register. Modern Library, The Internet Sacred Text Annal.
13. ^ "Pliny the Younger, Epistulae VI.16 & VI.xx". Aboriginal Literature . Retrieved July 7, 2012.
14. ^ Sigurðsson, Haraldur; Cashdollar, Stanford; Sparks, R. Stephen J. (Jan 1982). "The Eruption of Vesuvius in A. D. 79: Reconstruction from Historical and Volcanological Evidence". American Journal of Archeology. 86 (i): 39–51. doi:10.2307/504292. JSTOR 504292. S2CID 11714919.
15. ^ Sigurðsson & Carey 2002, pp. 42–43.
16. ^ Sigurðsson 2002
17. ^ Zanella et al. 2007, p. 5.
18. ^ Zanella et al. 2007, p. half-dozen.
19. ^ Zanella et al. 2007, p. 10.
20. ^ Zanella et al. 2007, p. 8.
21. ^ Zanella et al. 2007, pp. 9–x.
22. ^ Zanella et al. 2007, p. i.
23. ^ Zanella et al. 2007, p. 3.
24. ^ Zanella et al. 2007, p. 12.
25. ^ Zanella et al. 2007, p. 13.
26. ^ Zanella et al. 2007, p. 14.
27. ^ Zanella et al. 2007, p. 15.
28. ^ His 18th year by Roman reckoning, as they counted the first 12 months as the get-go year
29. ^ Delphi Complete Works of Pliny the Younger, Volume 28 of Delphi Aboriginal Classics
30. ^ C. Plinii Caecilii Secundi. "Liber Sextus; sixteen & 20". Epistularum. The Latin Library.
31. ^ ^{a b} Pliny the Younger (1909). "LXV. To Tacitus". In Eliot, Charles Westward. (ed.). Vol. IX, Part four: Letters. The Harvard Classics. New York: Bartleby.
32. ^ Pliny the Younger (1909). "LXVI. To Cornelius Tacitus". In Eliot, Charles W. (ed.). Vol. IX, Part 4: Letters. The Harvard Classics. New York: Bartleby.
33. ^ "Gallery: Pompeii". July 3, 2019. Retrieved October eighteen, 2020.
34. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Pliny the Younger (1909). "VI.16 To Tacitus". In Eliot, Charles W. (ed.). Vol. IX, Role 4: Letters. The Harvard Classics. New York: Bartleby. ^{[ verification needed ]}
35. ^ Richard 5. Fisher and volunteers. "Derivation of the name "Plinian"". The Volcano Information Middle, Department of Geological Sciences, Academy of California, Santa Barbara. Retrieved May 15, 2010.
36. ^ Janick, Jules (2002). "Lecture 19: Greek, Carthaginian, and Roman Agricultural Writers". History of Horticulture. Purdue University. Archived from the original on July 18, 2012. Retrieved May fifteen, 2010.
37. ^ Josephus, Flavius. "xx.7.2". Jewish Antiquities. As well known to have been mentioned in a section at present lost.
38. ^ Thibodeau, Philip (June 5, 2011). Playing the Farmer: Representations of Rural Life in Vergil'south Georgics. Academy of California Printing. p. 252. ISBN9780520268326.
39. ^ ^{a b} Giacomelli, Lisetta; Perrotta, Annamaria; Scandone, Roberto; Scarpati, Claudio (September 2003). "The eruption of Vesuvius of 79 Advert and its affect on human environment in Pompei". Episodes. 26 (3): 235–238. doi:ten.18814/epiiugs/2003/v26i3/014.
40. ^ Soprintendenza archeologica di Pompei (2007). "Pompeii, Stories from an eruption: Herculaneum". The Field Museum of Natural History. Chicago. Archived from the original on March 18, 2009. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
41. ^ Mastrolorenzo, Giuseppe; Petrone, Pierpaolo; Pappalardo, Lucia; Guarino, Fabio Yard (2010). "Lethal Thermal Bear upon at Periphery of Pyroclastic Surges: Evidences at Pompeii". PLOS 1. 5 (6): e11127. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...511127M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011127. PMC2886100. PMID 20559555.
42. ^ Valsecchi, Maria Cristina (Nov 2, 2010). "Pompeiians Wink-Heated to Death—'No Time to Suffocate'". National Geographic News.
43. ^ Petrone, Pierpaolo; Pucci, Piero; Niola, Massimo; Baxter, Peter J.; et al. (2020). "Estrus-Induced Brain Vitrification from the Vesuvius Eruption in c.e. 79". The New England Journal of Medicine. 382 (4): 383–384. doi:10.1056/NEJMc1909867. PMID 31971686.
44. ^ Josephus. Whitson, W. (ed.). Antiquities of the Jews. Tufts Academy Perseus archive.
45. ^ Suetonius (1914). The Lives of the Twelve Caesars. Penelope. University of Chicago.
46. ^ Dio (1925). Roman History, Volume LXVI, section 21. Penelope. University of Chicago.
47. ^ Delphi Consummate Works of Pliny the Younger, 2014, Book 28 of Delphi Ancient Classics
48. ^ Pliny the Younger. Letters 6.xvi and 6.20 (Penguin, translated by B. Radice, notes by A. Futrell ed.). University of Arizona.
49. ^ Berry, Joanne (2013). The Complete Pompeii. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. p. twenty. ISBN978-0500290927.
50. ^ ^{a b c} Rolandi, G.; Paone, A.; De Lascio, Yard.; Stefani, G. (January 2008). "The 79 Advertising eruption of Somma: the relationship between the appointment of the eruption and the southeast tephra dispersion". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 169 (one): 87–98. Bibcode:2008JVGR..169...87R. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.08.020.
51. ^ Abdy, Richard (2013). "The Last Money in Pompeii: A Re-evaluation of the Coin Hoard from the House of the Golden Bracelet". The Numismatic Chronicle. 173: 79–83. JSTOR 43859727.
52. ^ "Pompeii's destruction appointment could be wrong". BBC News. October 16, 2018.
53. ^ "New Pompeii evidence rewrites Vesuvius eruption history". Phys.org. October 16, 2018.
54. ^ "Archaeological discover changes appointment of Pompeii'due south destruction". The Guardian. October 16, 2018.

Bibliography [edit]

• Sigurðsson, Haraldur (2002). "Mount Vesuvius Earlier the Disaster". In Jashemski, Wilhelmina Mary Feemster; Meyer, Frederick Gustav (eds.). The Natural History of Pompeii. Cambridge, UK: The Printing Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. pp. 29–36.
• Sigurðsson, Haraldur; Carey, Steven (2002). "The Eruption of Vesuvius in Advertizement 79". In Jashemski, Wilhelmina Mary Feemster; Meyer, Frederick Gustav (eds.). The Natural History of Pompeii. Cambridge UK: The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. pp. 37–64.
• Zanella, Eastward.; Gurioli, Fifty.; Pareschi, M.T.; Lanza, R. (2007). "Influences of Urban Fabric on Pyroclastic Density Currents at Pompeii (Italy): Part Two: Temperature of the Deposits and Hazard Implications" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Inquiry. 112 (112): B05214. Bibcode:2007JGRB..112.5214Z. doi:10.1029/2006JB004775.

External links [edit]

• "Abode". AD79 Destruction and Rediscovery. Information on the eruption, the locations destroyed, and subsequent rediscovery.
• A Day in Pompeii - Full-length animation on YouTube by Nil ONE and the Melbourne Museum — blitheness demonstrating what it would accept looked like to see the eruption's effects on the urban center.

montgomerytherimand38.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79_AD

Share this post